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The EVM (Ethereum Virtual Machine) is Ethereum's execution environment: contracts compile to EVM bytecode; all nodes execute under the same rules for global state consistency.

Solidity is the dominant contract language; Vyper emphasizes security and simplicity. Toolchains include Hardhat, Foundry, Remix.

Running a full node means independently verifying every rule on-chain without trusting third parties—the foundation of Ethereum decentralization.

Node stack: execution clients (Geth, Nethermind, Besu) + consensus clients (Prysm, Lighthouse, Teku). Post-Merge, run both.

Future upgrades like stateless clients will lower hardware barriers, enabling more validators and stronger decentralization—a positive for ETH's long-term security premium.